Last 10 Commits for research_paper

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commit 87e50f81ade6cfc7b373cbecbd96ec8bd8b3b573
Author: ffff:72.234.190.31 <ffff:72.234.190.31@hub.scroll.pub> Date: Mon Dec 2 22:14:15 2024 +0000 updated index.scroll diff --git a/index.scroll b/index.scroll index 1d3f0b2..48abe4a 100644 --- a/index.scroll +++ b/index.scroll @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ date 12/2/2024 title The power struggle in our brain: Energy imbalance in mental health metaTags -theme gazette +theme prestige editButton printTitle @@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ printTitle printAuthors printDate -thinColumns 2 +container 500px Imagine your brain as a city, powered by a fuel called ATP, which keeps its systems active and balanced. ------------------------------------------------------------
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Author: ffff:72.234.190.31 <ffff:72.234.190.31@hub.scroll.pub> Date: Mon Dec 2 22:13:59 2024 +0000 updated index.scroll diff --git a/index.scroll b/index.scroll index b9556e9..1d3f0b2 100644 --- a/index.scroll +++ b/index.scroll @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ authors Smita Sahay buildHtml -date 4/2/1953 +date 12/2/2024 title The power struggle in our brain: Energy imbalance in mental health metaTags ------------------------------------------------------------
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Author: ffff:72.234.190.31 <ffff:72.234.190.31@hub.scroll.pub> Date: Mon Dec 2 22:13:51 2024 +0000 updated index.scroll diff --git a/index.scroll b/index.scroll index 3aac82d..b9556e9 100644 --- a/index.scroll +++ b/index.scroll @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -authors J. D. Watson and F. H. C. Crick +authors Smita Sahay buildHtml date 4/2/1953 title The power struggle in our brain: Energy imbalance in mental health ------------------------------------------------------------
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Author: ffff:72.234.190.31 <ffff:72.234.190.31@hub.scroll.pub> Date: Mon Dec 2 22:13:37 2024 +0000 updated index.scroll diff --git a/index.scroll b/index.scroll index 493f9e6..3aac82d 100644 --- a/index.scroll +++ b/index.scroll @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ authors J. D. Watson and F. H. C. Crick buildHtml date 4/2/1953 -title MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS +title The power struggle in our brain: Energy imbalance in mental health metaTags theme gazette @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ editButton printTitle -# A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid +# The power struggle in our brain: Energy imbalance in mental health printAuthors printDate ------------------------------------------------------------
commit 282547cbd8912a53f551303aff681f04190e4f29
Author: ffff:72.234.190.31 <ffff:72.234.190.31@hub.scroll.pub> Date: Mon Dec 2 22:13:28 2024 +0000 updated index.scroll diff --git a/index.scroll b/index.scroll index ff89b01..493f9e6 100644 --- a/index.scroll +++ b/index.scroll @@ -1,69 +1,53 @@ -authors J. D. Watson and F. H. C. Crick -buildHtml -date 4/2/1953 -title MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS - -metaTags -theme gazette -editButton - -printTitle - -# A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid - -printAuthors -printDate - -thinColumns 2 - -We wish to suggest a structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D.N.A.). This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest. - class dropcap - -A structure for nucleic acid has already been proposed by Pauling and Corey^pauling. They kindly made their manuscript available to us in advance of publication. Their model consists of three intertwined chains, with the phosphates near the fibre axis, and the bases on the outside. In our opinion, this structure is unsatisfactory for two reasons: (1) We believe that the material which gives the X-ray diagrams is the salt, not the free acid. Without the acidic hydrogen atoms it is not clear what forces would hold the structure together, especially as the negatively charged phosphates near the axis will repel each other. (2) Some of the van der Waals distances appear to be too small. - -Another three-chain structure has also been suggested by Fraser (in the press). In his model the phosphates are on the outside and the bases on the inside, linked together by hydrogen bonds. This structure as described is rather ill-defined, and for this reason we shall not comment on it. - -image https://breckyunits.com/dna.png - float left - width 150 - caption This figure is purely diagrammatic . The two ribbons symbolize the two phophate-sugar chains, and the horizonal rods the pairs of bases holding the chains together. The vertical line marks the fibre axis. - -We wish to put forward a radically different structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid. This structure has two helical chains each coiled round the same axis (see diagram). We have made the usual chemical assumptions, namely, that each chain consists of phosphate diester groups joining beta-D-deoxyribofuranose residues with 3',5' linkages. The two chains (but not their bases) are related by a dyad perpendicular to the fibre axis. Both chains follow right-handed helices, but owing to the dyad the sequences of the atoms in the two chains run in opposite directions. Each chain loosely resembles Furberg's ^furberg model No. 1 ; that is, the bases are on the inside of the helix and the phosphates on the outside. The configuration of the sugar and the atoms near it is close to Furberg's "standard configuration," the sugar being roughly perpendicular to the attached base. There is a residue on each every 3.4 A. in the z -direction. We have assumed an angle of 36° between adjacent residues in the same chain, so that the structure repeats after 10 residues on each chain, that is, after 34 A. The distance of a phosphorus atom from the fibre axis is 10 A. As the phosphates are on the outside, cations have easy access to them. - -The structure is an open one, and its water content is rather high. At lower water contents we would expect the bases to tilt so that the structure could become more compact. - -The novel feature of the structure is the manner in which the two chains are held together by the purine and pyrimidine bases. The planes of the bases are perpendicular to the fibre axis. They are joined together in pairs, a single base from one chain being hydroden-bonded to a single base from the other chain, so that the two lie side by side with identical z -coordinates. One of the pair must be a purine and the other a pyrimidine for bonding to occur. The hydrogen bonds are made as follows: purine position 1 to pyrimidine position 1; purine position 6 to pyrimidine position 6. - -If it is assumed that the bases only occur in the structure in the most plausible tautomeric forms (that is, with the keto rather than the enol configurations) it is found that only specific pairs of bases can bond together. These pairs are: adenine (purine) with thymine (pyrimidine), and guanine (purine) with cytosine (pyrimidine). - -In other words, if an adenine forms one member of a pair, on either chain, then on these assumptions the other member must be thymine; similarly for guanine and cytosine. The sequence of bases on a single chain does not appear to be restricted in any way. However, if only specific pairs of bases can be formed, it follows that if the sequence of bases on one chain is given, then the sequence on the other chain is automatically determined. - -It has been found experimentally ^chargaff^wyatt that the ratio of the amounts of adenine to thymine, and the ratio of guanine to cytosine, are always very close to unity for deoxyribose nucleic acid. - -It is probably impossible to build this structure with a ribose sugar in place of the deoxyribose, as the extra oxygen atom would make too close a van der Waals contact. - -The previously published X-ray data ^astbury^wilkins on deoxyribose nucleic acid are insufficient for a rigorous test of our structure. So far as we can tell, it is roughly compatible with the experimental data, but it must be regarded as unproved until it has been checked against more exact results. Some of these are given in the following communications. We were not aware of the details of the results presented there when we devised our structure, which rests mainly though not entirely on published experimental data and stereochemical arguments. - -It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material. - -Full details of the structure, including the conditions assumed in building it, together with a set of coordinates for the atoms, will be published elsewhere. - -We are much indebted to Dr. Jerry Donohue for constant advice and criticism, especially on interatomic distances. We have also been stimulated by a knowledge of the general nature of the unpublished experimental results and ideas of Dr. M. H. F. Wilkins, Dr. R. E. Franklin and their co-workers at King’s College, London. One of us (J. D. W.) has been aided by a fellowship from the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis. - -**** - -- J.D. Watson -- F. H. C. Crick - -*** - -Medical Research Council Unit for the Study of the Molecular Structure of Biological Systems, Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge. - -*** - -^pauling Pauling, L., and Corey, R. B., Nature, 171, 346 (1953); Proc. U.S. Nat. Acad. Sci., 39, 84 (1953). -^furberg Furberg, S., Acta Chem. Scand., 6, 634 (1952). -^chargaff Chargaff, E., for references see Zamenhof, S., Brawerman, G., and Chargaff, E., Biochim. et Biophys. Acta, 9, 402 (1952). -^wyatt Wyatt, G. R., J. Gen. Physiol. , 36, 201 (1952). -^astbury Astbury, W. T., Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol. 1, Nucleic Acid, 66 (Camb. Univ. Press, 1947). -^wilkins Wilkins, M. H. F., and Randall, J. T., Biochim. et Biophys. Acta, 10, 192 (1953). +authors J. D. Watson and F. H. C. Crick +buildHtml +date 4/2/1953 +title MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS + +metaTags +theme gazette +editButton + +printTitle + +# A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid + +printAuthors +printDate + +thinColumns 2 + +Imagine your brain as a city, powered by a fuel called ATP, which keeps its systems active and balanced. + +ATP is mainly created through the breakdown of food, supplying energy to all cells in the body. When this energy is not made or managed correctly in the brain, cells fail to function properly, much like a city losing power and slowing down. + +The goal of my research is to investigate how ATP disruptions contribute to mental health disorders such as schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, and suicide risk. + +A central player in keeping the brain powered is the purinergic system, which oversees ATP formation, movement, and breakdown. This system is efficient, using special proteins to move ATP smoothly through the brain’s cells to where it’s needed. In mental health conditions like schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, and suicide, however, this carefully controlled flow is not the same. We now know that certain parts of the purinergic system have glitches in these mental health disorders, causing energy imbalances. + +Our research focuses on the brain’s frontal lobe — much like a city’s central district, responsible for regulating emotions and complex decision-making. In schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, and in those who have died by suicide, the purinergic system’s usual patterns in this central district break down, leading to a loss of usual ATP movement. Normally, proteins within this system make sure ATP does its job in maintaining stability. But in the case of mental illnesses, it’s as though some city workers are skipping tasks, leaving cells without proper energy and resulting in assorted problems in this area of the brain. This compromised activity partly explains why people with these conditions may experience delusions, persistent sadness, and, in severe cases, suicidal thoughts. + +An important part of our research is studying purinergic receptors, which are proteins that direct how ATP and its breakdown products interact with cells during stress responses. In schizophrenia, these receptors in the brain act like faulty signal lights in a city, becoming either unresponsive or overactive, leading to impulsive behaviors, hallucinations, or mood swings. For people with major depressive disorder and those who die by suicide, we noticed similar receptor disruptions but with slightly different effects. These broken signals influence feelings of hopelessness or a loss of joy. + +Problems with these purinergic receptors over time change the way the brain responds to stress. + +Another discovery shows that when ATP is not broken down correctly, the frontal lobe of the brain may become overwhelmed. This imbalance may worsen emotional instability or the feeling of being trapped in negative thought cycles. This is akin to a city-wide traffic jam in which one area’s overload slows down the entire system. These findings suggest that an out-of-balance purinergic system does not just contribute to mental illnesses but may amplify them, creating feedback loops of low energy and high stress that affect the entire brain. + +Adding to these discoveries, we found important differences in how the purinergic system functions in females versus males. While these differences in brain function are often understudied in mental health research, our work reveals distinct variations in the presence of purinergic proteins and receptors between females and males. Biological differences shape how each brain responds to stress, processes emotions, and makes decisions. These patterns in the purinergic system help explain why females and males may exhibit different symptoms despite having the same mental health disorder. This discovery brings us closer to developing more targeted treatments tailored to each sex. + +**** + +- J.D. Watson +- F. H. C. Crick + +*** + +Medical Research Council Unit for the Study of the Molecular Structure of Biological Systems, Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge. + +*** + +^pauling Pauling, L., and Corey, R. B., Nature, 171, 346 (1953); Proc. U.S. Nat. Acad. Sci., 39, 84 (1953). +^furberg Furberg, S., Acta Chem. Scand., 6, 634 (1952). +^chargaff Chargaff, E., for references see Zamenhof, S., Brawerman, G., and Chargaff, E., Biochim. et Biophys. Acta, 9, 402 (1952). +^wyatt Wyatt, G. R., J. Gen. Physiol. , 36, 201 (1952). +^astbury Astbury, W. T., Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol. 1, Nucleic Acid, 66 (Camb. Univ. Press, 1947). +^wilkins Wilkins, M. H. F., and Randall, J. T., Biochim. et Biophys. Acta, 10, 192 (1953). ------------------------------------------------------------
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Author: ffff:173.198.69.239 <ffff:173.198.69.239@hub.scroll.pub> Date: Mon Nov 4 17:25:33 2024 +0000 Updated index.scroll diff --git a/index.scroll b/index.scroll index 9d3a46e..10e4009 100644 --- a/index.scroll +++ b/index.scroll @@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ title MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS metaTags theme gazette -editButton edit.html +editButton ../edit.html printTitle ------------------------------------------------------------
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Author: ffff:173.198.69.239 <ffff:173.198.69.239@hub.scroll.pub> Date: Mon Nov 4 17:25:14 2024 +0000 Updated index.scroll diff --git a/index.scroll b/index.scroll index 50faea7..9d3a46e 100644 --- a/index.scroll +++ b/index.scroll @@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ title MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS metaTags theme gazette -viewSourceButton +editButton edit.html printTitle ------------------------------------------------------------
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Author: ffff:173.198.69.239 <ffff:173.198.69.239@hub.scroll.pub> Date: Mon Nov 4 17:24:53 2024 +0000 Reverted to 82446dacc8eca809ce00248a5c280af68483e8f4 diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aa0ab78 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitignore @@ -0,0 +1,5 @@ +*.html +*.txt +*.xml +*.css +*.js \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/dna.png b/dna.png new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a3827e5 Binary files /dev/null and b/dna.png differ diff --git a/index.scroll b/index.scroll index 1d2da6b..50faea7 100644 --- a/index.scroll +++ b/index.scroll @@ -9,20 +9,61 @@ viewSourceButton printTitle +# A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid + printAuthors printDate -container - -The "computable" numbers may be described briefly as the real -numbers whose expressions as a decimal are calculable by finite means. -Although the subject of this paper is ostensibly the computable numbers. -it is almost equally easy to define and investigate computable functions -of an integral variable or a real or computable variable, computable -predicates, and so forth. The fundamental problems involved are, -however, the same in each case, and I have chosen the computable numbers -for explicit treatment as involving the least cumbrous technique. I hope -shortly to give an account of the relations of the computable numbers, -functions, and so forth to one another. This will include a development -of the theory of functions of a real variable expressed in terms of computable numbers. According to my definition, a number is computable -if its decimal can be written down by a machine. \ No newline at end of file +thinColumns 2 + +We wish to suggest a structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D.N.A.). This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest. + class dropcap + +A structure for nucleic acid has already been proposed by Pauling and Corey^pauling. They kindly made their manuscript available to us in advance of publication. Their model consists of three intertwined chains, with the phosphates near the fibre axis, and the bases on the outside. In our opinion, this structure is unsatisfactory for two reasons: (1) We believe that the material which gives the X-ray diagrams is the salt, not the free acid. Without the acidic hydrogen atoms it is not clear what forces would hold the structure together, especially as the negatively charged phosphates near the axis will repel each other. (2) Some of the van der Waals distances appear to be too small. + +Another three-chain structure has also been suggested by Fraser (in the press). In his model the phosphates are on the outside and the bases on the inside, linked together by hydrogen bonds. This structure as described is rather ill-defined, and for this reason we shall not comment on it. + +image https://breckyunits.com/dna.png + float left + width 150 + caption This figure is purely diagrammatic . The two ribbons symbolize the two phophate-sugar chains, and the horizonal rods the pairs of bases holding the chains together. The vertical line marks the fibre axis. + +We wish to put forward a radically different structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid. This structure has two helical chains each coiled round the same axis (see diagram). We have made the usual chemical assumptions, namely, that each chain consists of phosphate diester groups joining beta-D-deoxyribofuranose residues with 3',5' linkages. The two chains (but not their bases) are related by a dyad perpendicular to the fibre axis. Both chains follow right-handed helices, but owing to the dyad the sequences of the atoms in the two chains run in opposite directions. Each chain loosely resembles Furberg's ^furberg model No. 1 ; that is, the bases are on the inside of the helix and the phosphates on the outside. The configuration of the sugar and the atoms near it is close to Furberg's "standard configuration," the sugar being roughly perpendicular to the attached base. There is a residue on each every 3.4 A. in the z -direction. We have assumed an angle of 36° between adjacent residues in the same chain, so that the structure repeats after 10 residues on each chain, that is, after 34 A. The distance of a phosphorus atom from the fibre axis is 10 A. As the phosphates are on the outside, cations have easy access to them. + +The structure is an open one, and its water content is rather high. At lower water contents we would expect the bases to tilt so that the structure could become more compact. + +The novel feature of the structure is the manner in which the two chains are held together by the purine and pyrimidine bases. The planes of the bases are perpendicular to the fibre axis. They are joined together in pairs, a single base from one chain being hydroden-bonded to a single base from the other chain, so that the two lie side by side with identical z -coordinates. One of the pair must be a purine and the other a pyrimidine for bonding to occur. The hydrogen bonds are made as follows: purine position 1 to pyrimidine position 1; purine position 6 to pyrimidine position 6. + +If it is assumed that the bases only occur in the structure in the most plausible tautomeric forms (that is, with the keto rather than the enol configurations) it is found that only specific pairs of bases can bond together. These pairs are: adenine (purine) with thymine (pyrimidine), and guanine (purine) with cytosine (pyrimidine). + +In other words, if an adenine forms one member of a pair, on either chain, then on these assumptions the other member must be thymine; similarly for guanine and cytosine. The sequence of bases on a single chain does not appear to be restricted in any way. However, if only specific pairs of bases can be formed, it follows that if the sequence of bases on one chain is given, then the sequence on the other chain is automatically determined. + +It has been found experimentally ^chargaff^wyatt that the ratio of the amounts of adenine to thymine, and the ratio of guanine to cytosine, are always very close to unity for deoxyribose nucleic acid. + +It is probably impossible to build this structure with a ribose sugar in place of the deoxyribose, as the extra oxygen atom would make too close a van der Waals contact. + +The previously published X-ray data ^astbury^wilkins on deoxyribose nucleic acid are insufficient for a rigorous test of our structure. So far as we can tell, it is roughly compatible with the experimental data, but it must be regarded as unproved until it has been checked against more exact results. Some of these are given in the following communications. We were not aware of the details of the results presented there when we devised our structure, which rests mainly though not entirely on published experimental data and stereochemical arguments. + +It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material. + +Full details of the structure, including the conditions assumed in building it, together with a set of coordinates for the atoms, will be published elsewhere. + +We are much indebted to Dr. Jerry Donohue for constant advice and criticism, especially on interatomic distances. We have also been stimulated by a knowledge of the general nature of the unpublished experimental results and ideas of Dr. M. H. F. Wilkins, Dr. R. E. Franklin and their co-workers at King’s College, London. One of us (J. D. W.) has been aided by a fellowship from the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis. + +**** + +- J.D. Watson +- F. H. C. Crick + +*** + +Medical Research Council Unit for the Study of the Molecular Structure of Biological Systems, Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge. + +*** + +^pauling Pauling, L., and Corey, R. B., Nature, 171, 346 (1953); Proc. U.S. Nat. Acad. Sci., 39, 84 (1953). +^furberg Furberg, S., Acta Chem. Scand., 6, 634 (1952). +^chargaff Chargaff, E., for references see Zamenhof, S., Brawerman, G., and Chargaff, E., Biochim. et Biophys. Acta, 9, 402 (1952). +^wyatt Wyatt, G. R., J. Gen. Physiol. , 36, 201 (1952). +^astbury Astbury, W. T., Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol. 1, Nucleic Acid, 66 (Camb. Univ. Press, 1947). +^wilkins Wilkins, M. H. F., and Randall, J. T., Biochim. et Biophys. Acta, 10, 192 (1953). ------------------------------------------------------------
commit ef2877b41583e9df71a127bac0553812635753f0
Author: ffff:173.198.69.239 <ffff:173.198.69.239@hub.scroll.pub> Date: Mon Nov 4 17:24:27 2024 +0000 Updated index.scroll diff --git a/index.scroll b/index.scroll index 50faea7..1d2da6b 100644 --- a/index.scroll +++ b/index.scroll @@ -9,61 +9,20 @@ viewSourceButton printTitle -# A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid - printAuthors printDate -thinColumns 2 - -We wish to suggest a structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (D.N.A.). This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest. - class dropcap - -A structure for nucleic acid has already been proposed by Pauling and Corey^pauling. They kindly made their manuscript available to us in advance of publication. Their model consists of three intertwined chains, with the phosphates near the fibre axis, and the bases on the outside. In our opinion, this structure is unsatisfactory for two reasons: (1) We believe that the material which gives the X-ray diagrams is the salt, not the free acid. Without the acidic hydrogen atoms it is not clear what forces would hold the structure together, especially as the negatively charged phosphates near the axis will repel each other. (2) Some of the van der Waals distances appear to be too small. - -Another three-chain structure has also been suggested by Fraser (in the press). In his model the phosphates are on the outside and the bases on the inside, linked together by hydrogen bonds. This structure as described is rather ill-defined, and for this reason we shall not comment on it. - -image https://breckyunits.com/dna.png - float left - width 150 - caption This figure is purely diagrammatic . The two ribbons symbolize the two phophate-sugar chains, and the horizonal rods the pairs of bases holding the chains together. The vertical line marks the fibre axis. - -We wish to put forward a radically different structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid. This structure has two helical chains each coiled round the same axis (see diagram). We have made the usual chemical assumptions, namely, that each chain consists of phosphate diester groups joining beta-D-deoxyribofuranose residues with 3',5' linkages. The two chains (but not their bases) are related by a dyad perpendicular to the fibre axis. Both chains follow right-handed helices, but owing to the dyad the sequences of the atoms in the two chains run in opposite directions. Each chain loosely resembles Furberg's ^furberg model No. 1 ; that is, the bases are on the inside of the helix and the phosphates on the outside. The configuration of the sugar and the atoms near it is close to Furberg's "standard configuration," the sugar being roughly perpendicular to the attached base. There is a residue on each every 3.4 A. in the z -direction. We have assumed an angle of 36° between adjacent residues in the same chain, so that the structure repeats after 10 residues on each chain, that is, after 34 A. The distance of a phosphorus atom from the fibre axis is 10 A. As the phosphates are on the outside, cations have easy access to them. - -The structure is an open one, and its water content is rather high. At lower water contents we would expect the bases to tilt so that the structure could become more compact. - -The novel feature of the structure is the manner in which the two chains are held together by the purine and pyrimidine bases. The planes of the bases are perpendicular to the fibre axis. They are joined together in pairs, a single base from one chain being hydroden-bonded to a single base from the other chain, so that the two lie side by side with identical z -coordinates. One of the pair must be a purine and the other a pyrimidine for bonding to occur. The hydrogen bonds are made as follows: purine position 1 to pyrimidine position 1; purine position 6 to pyrimidine position 6. - -If it is assumed that the bases only occur in the structure in the most plausible tautomeric forms (that is, with the keto rather than the enol configurations) it is found that only specific pairs of bases can bond together. These pairs are: adenine (purine) with thymine (pyrimidine), and guanine (purine) with cytosine (pyrimidine). - -In other words, if an adenine forms one member of a pair, on either chain, then on these assumptions the other member must be thymine; similarly for guanine and cytosine. The sequence of bases on a single chain does not appear to be restricted in any way. However, if only specific pairs of bases can be formed, it follows that if the sequence of bases on one chain is given, then the sequence on the other chain is automatically determined. - -It has been found experimentally ^chargaff^wyatt that the ratio of the amounts of adenine to thymine, and the ratio of guanine to cytosine, are always very close to unity for deoxyribose nucleic acid. - -It is probably impossible to build this structure with a ribose sugar in place of the deoxyribose, as the extra oxygen atom would make too close a van der Waals contact. - -The previously published X-ray data ^astbury^wilkins on deoxyribose nucleic acid are insufficient for a rigorous test of our structure. So far as we can tell, it is roughly compatible with the experimental data, but it must be regarded as unproved until it has been checked against more exact results. Some of these are given in the following communications. We were not aware of the details of the results presented there when we devised our structure, which rests mainly though not entirely on published experimental data and stereochemical arguments. - -It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material. - -Full details of the structure, including the conditions assumed in building it, together with a set of coordinates for the atoms, will be published elsewhere. - -We are much indebted to Dr. Jerry Donohue for constant advice and criticism, especially on interatomic distances. We have also been stimulated by a knowledge of the general nature of the unpublished experimental results and ideas of Dr. M. H. F. Wilkins, Dr. R. E. Franklin and their co-workers at King’s College, London. One of us (J. D. W.) has been aided by a fellowship from the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis. - -**** - -- J.D. Watson -- F. H. C. Crick - -*** - -Medical Research Council Unit for the Study of the Molecular Structure of Biological Systems, Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge. - -*** - -^pauling Pauling, L., and Corey, R. B., Nature, 171, 346 (1953); Proc. U.S. Nat. Acad. Sci., 39, 84 (1953). -^furberg Furberg, S., Acta Chem. Scand., 6, 634 (1952). -^chargaff Chargaff, E., for references see Zamenhof, S., Brawerman, G., and Chargaff, E., Biochim. et Biophys. Acta, 9, 402 (1952). -^wyatt Wyatt, G. R., J. Gen. Physiol. , 36, 201 (1952). -^astbury Astbury, W. T., Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol. 1, Nucleic Acid, 66 (Camb. Univ. Press, 1947). -^wilkins Wilkins, M. H. F., and Randall, J. T., Biochim. et Biophys. Acta, 10, 192 (1953). +container + +The "computable" numbers may be described briefly as the real +numbers whose expressions as a decimal are calculable by finite means. +Although the subject of this paper is ostensibly the computable numbers. +it is almost equally easy to define and investigate computable functions +of an integral variable or a real or computable variable, computable +predicates, and so forth. The fundamental problems involved are, +however, the same in each case, and I have chosen the computable numbers +for explicit treatment as involving the least cumbrous technique. I hope +shortly to give an account of the relations of the computable numbers, +functions, and so forth to one another. This will include a development +of the theory of functions of a real variable expressed in terms of computable numbers. According to my definition, a number is computable +if its decimal can be written down by a machine. \ No newline at end of file